Globalization and the 21st Century

A condensed, point-by-point summary of the module, for reviewing right before a test or exam.

1. Defining Globalization and Its Economic Architecture. Globalization links economies and societies worldwide, governed by institutions such as the WTO, IMF, and World Bank.
2. The Digital and Technological Revolution. The Internet, smartphones, and later artificial intelligence transformed global communication, commerce, and culture.
3. The Rise of China and the Emerging Powers of the BRICS. China's market reforms since 1978 and the rise of the BRICS bloc reshaped the balance of global economic power.
4. European Integration: From Maastricht to Brexit. The Maastricht Treaty founded the EU in 1992, which later introduced the euro, enlarged eastward, and lost the United Kingdom.
5. September 11, the War on Terror, and the Wars in Afghanistan and Iraq. The September 11, 2001 attacks led the United States into a "war on terror" and prolonged wars in Afghanistan and Iraq.
6. The 2008 Financial Crisis, the Arab Spring, and the Rise of Populism. The 2008 crisis, the Arab Spring uprisings, and rising populism reshaped global politics between 2008 and the 2020s.
7. Climate Change, Global Migration, and Inequality. Climate change, mass migration, and persistent inequality became defining, deeply interconnected challenges of the era.
8. The Turbulent 2020s: Pandemic, Great-Power Rivalry, and the War in Ukraine. The COVID-19 pandemic, US-China rivalry, global social movements, and the Russia-Ukraine war marked the early 2020s.