Hindu Philosophy, Society, and Devotional Practice

The Upanishads, composed over a long period beginning around 800 BCE and continuing for several centuries, mark a significant shift in Vedic religious life, moving from an emphasis on ritual sacrifice toward philosophical inquiry into the nature of reality, the self, and liberation. Their name, commonly glossed as "sitting near" or "sitting devotedly," reflects their origin as esoteric teachings transmitted from teacher to student. Roughly thirteen Upanishads, including the Brihadaranyaka, Chandogya, Katha, and Mandukya, are regarded as "principal" (mukhya) and form, together with the Brahma Sutras of Badarayana and the Bhagavad Gita, the "triple foundation" (prasthanatrayi) of Vedanta, literally "the end of the Veda," the philosophical school devoted to systematizing Upanishadic teaching. Vedanta subsequently diversified into several distinct sub-schools offering different accounts of the relationship between the individual self, the world, and Brahman, most prominently Advaita ("non-dualism"), associated with Adi Shankara; Vishishtadvaita ("qualified non-dualism"), associated with Ramanuja; and Dvaita ("dualism"), associated with Madhva, each of which has generated its own extensive commentarial tradition and continues to shape Hindu philosophical and devotional life.