Cosmopolitan Tang: Examinations, the Silk Road, and Chang'an

The imperial examination system (keju) had originated under the Sui dynasty but was consolidated and expanded under the Tang, in theory allowing access to public administration on the basis of academic merit rather than social origin. Examinations were held at local, provincial, and metropolitan levels, testing the Confucian classics, literary composition, and poetry; the title of "jinshi," earned in the metropolitan examination, opened the door to the highest offices. Wu Zetian expanded the system further, and it coexisted with other paths into office, such as recommendation for the sons of high officials. The system helped form a class of "scholar-officials" that became the foundation of imperial government for centuries, and it was later refined under the Song with mechanisms such as anonymous grading to reduce favoritism.