Level 13
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Transition to the Modern World

The Reformation

The Protestant Reformation and the Catholic Counter-Reformation that split Christian Europe.

Wikimedia Commons · Lucas Cranach the Elder · Public domain

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A condensed, point-by-point summary of the module, for reviewing right before a test or exam.

  1. Background and causes of the Reformation. Corruption, humanism, the printing press, and precedents like Hus prepared the ground for Luther's revolt.
  2. Martin Luther and the break with Rome. Martin Luther's 1517 theses on indulgences escalated into a doctrinal and political break with Rome.
  3. Lutheran doctrine and the consolidation of the Reformation in the Empire. Lutheran doctrine and princely politics spread the Reformation across the Empire until the 1555 Peace of Augsburg.
  4. Zwingli, Calvin, and the diversification of Protestantism. Zwingli and Calvin built parallel reformed traditions that diversified Protestantism beyond Lutheranism.
  5. The Reformation beyond Germany: England and Scandinavia. Dynastic politics in England and royal initiative in Scandinavia carried the Reformation beyond Germany.
  6. The Catholic response: the Council of Trent. The Council of Trent (1545-1563) reaffirmed Catholic doctrine and reformed clerical discipline.
  7. Instruments of Catholic renewal: new orders, mystics, and control. New orders, mystics, and tribunals like the Jesuits and the Roman Inquisition renewed and policed Catholicism.
  8. Religious wars and the legacy of a divided Europe. Religious wars culminating in 1648 fixed a divided confessional map that still marks Europe today.

This module continues after "Colonization and the Slave Trade" in the syllabus. If you haven't reviewed it yet, it may help set the context.

Key points

Visual module map

1Background and causes of the Reformation
2Lutheran doctrine and the consolidation of the Reformation in the Empire
3The Reformation beyond Germany: England and Scandinavia
4The Catholic response: the Council of Trent
5Religious wars and the legacy of a divided Europe

Alternative visual view: a simplified sequence of some of the module's key points, in their order within the syllabus.

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Final test

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Further reading

Bibliography and cited sources used to create this module.

  • Diarmaid MacCulloch, The Reformation: A History.
  • Roland Bainton, Here I Stand: A Life of Martin Luther.
  • Hubert Jedin, A History of the Council of Trent.
  • John W. O'Malley, The First Jesuits.
  • Martin Luther, The Ninety-Five Theses.
  • Max Weber, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism.
  • George H. Williams, The Radical Reformation.