From Ancient Precedent to Westphalia

The practice of regulating relations between distinct political communities through formal agreements is far older than the modern concept of international law. One of the earliest surviving examples is the treaty concluded around 1259 BCE between the Hittite king Hattusili III and the Egyptian pharaoh Ramesses II, following the Battle of Kadesh. Preserved in both Akkadian cuneiform and Egyptian hieroglyphic versions, it established peace, a mutual non-aggression pledge, an extradition clause for fugitives, and an alliance against common enemies, invoking the gods of both nations as witnesses and guarantors. Mesopotamian city-states had already developed conventions governing boundaries, diplomatic envoys, and the treatment of messengers centuries earlier, and Egyptian records document similar arrangements with Near Eastern neighbors, showing that even in the ancient world, rulers recognized the need for binding, reciprocal commitments beyond the reach of any single sovereign authority.